Ancient Mayan Warriors and Warfare

The Maya were a mighty civilization based in the low, rainy forests of southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize whose culture peaked around 800 A.D. before going into steep decline. Historical anthropologists used to believe the Maya were a peaceful people, who warred upon one another rarely if at all, preferring instead to dedicate themselves to astronomy, building, and other non-violent pursuits. Recent advances in the interpretation of stonework at Maya sites have changed that, however, and the Maya are now considered a very violent, warmongering society. Wars and warfare were important to the Maya for a variety of reasons, including subjugation of neighboring city-states, prestige, and capture of prisoners for slaves and sacrifices. Traditional Pacifist Views of the Maya Historians and cultural anthropologists began seriously studying the Maya in the early 1900s. These first historians were impressed with the great Maya interest in the cosmos and astronomy and their other cultural achievements, such as the Maya calendar and their large trade networks. There was ample evidence of a warlike tendency among the Maya — carved scenes of battle or sacrifice, walled compounds, stone, and obsidian weapon points, etc. — but the early Mayanists ignored this evidence, instead of sticking to their notions of the Maya as a peaceful people. As the glyphs on the temples and stelae began to yield their secrets to dedicated linguists, however, a very different picture of the Maya emerged. The Maya City-States Unlike the Aztecs of Central Mexico and the Inca of the Andes, the Maya were never a single, unified empire organized and administered from a central city. Instead, the Maya were a series of city-states in the same region, linked by language, trade, and certain cultural similarities, but often in lethal contention with one another for resources, power, and influence. Powerful cities like Tikal, Calakmul, and Caracol frequently warred upon one another or upon smaller cities. Small raids into enemy territory were common: attacking and defeating a powerful rival city was rare but not unheard of. The Maya Military Wars and major raids were led by the Ahau or King. Members of the highest ruling class often were military and spiritual leaders of the cities and their capture during battles was a key element of military strategy. It is believed that many of the cities, especially the larger ones, had large, well-trained armies available for attack and defense. It is unknown if the Maya had a professional soldier class as the Aztecs did. Maya Military Goals The Maya city-states went to war with one another for several different reasons. Part of it was military dominance: to bring more territory or vassal states under the command of a larger city. Capturing prisoners was a priority, especially high-ranking ones. These prisoners would be ritually humiliated at the victorious city: sometimes, the battles were played out again in the ball court, with the losing prisoners sacrificed after the â€Å"game.† It is known that some of these prisoners remained with their captors for years before finally being sacrificed. Experts disagree about whether these wars were waged solely for the purpose of taking prisoners, like the famous Flower Wars of the Aztecs. Late in the Classic period, when the warring in the Maya region became much worse, cities would be attacked, looted and destroyed. Warfare and Architecture The Maya penchant for warfare is reflected in their architecture. Many of the major and minor cities have defensive walls, and in the later Classic period, newly-founded cities were no longer established near productive land, as they had been previously, but rather on defensible sites such as hilltops. The structure of the cities changed, with the important buildings all being inside the walls. Walls could be as high as ten to twelve feet (3.5 meters) and were usually made of stone supported by wooden posts. Sometimes the construction of walls seemed desperate: in some cases, walls were built right up to important temples and palaces, and in some cases (notably the Dos Pilas site) important buildings were taken apart for stone for the walls. Some cities had elaborate defenses: Ek Balam in the Yucatan had three concentric walls and the remains of a fourth one in the city center. Famous Battles and Conflicts The best-documented and possibly the most important conflict was the struggle between Calakmul and Tikal in the fifth and sixth centuries. These two powerful city-states were each dominant politically, militarily and economically in their regions, but were also relatively close to one another. They began warring, with vassal cities like Dos Pilas and Caracol changing hands as the power of each respective city waxed and waned. In 562 A.D. Calakmul and/or Caracol defeated the mighty city of Tikal, which fell into a brief decline before regaining its former glory. Some cities were hit so hard that they never recovered, like Dos Pilas in 760 A.D. and Aguateca sometime around 790 A.D. Effects of Warfare on Maya Civilization Between 700 and 900 A.D., most of the important Maya cities in the south and central regions of the Maya civilization went silent, their cities abandoned. The decline of the Maya civilization is still a mystery. Different theories have been proposed, including excessive warfare, drought, plague, climate change and more: some belief in a combination of factors. Warfare almost certainly had something to do with the disappearance of the Maya civilization: by the ​late Classic period wars, battles and skirmishes were quite common and important resources were dedicated to wars and city defenses. Source: McKillop, Heather. The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives. New York: Norton, 2004.

Passing Essay - 1041 Words

The Root of Jealousy nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In Nella Larsen’s Passing, Irene Redfield and Clare Kendry show us a great deal about race and sexuality in the 1920s. Both are extremely light-skinned women of African-American descent. However similar they appear to be, their views on race, a very controversial issue at the time, differ significantly. Clare chooses to use her physical appearance as an advantage in America’s racist and sexist society, leaving behind everything that connects her to her African-American identity. She presents herself as an object of sexual desire, flaunting herself to gain attention. Irene is practically the opposite, deciding that she wants to remain with the label of being black. She is subtle with her†¦show more content†¦When Irene finally realizes that this woman is Clare, someone who chooses to â€Å"pass† and hide all traces of her black heritage, Irene’s opinion of her changes. She no longer wants to be involved with Clare in any wa y, and â€Å"had no desire or intention of making the slightest effort about Tuesday. Nor any other day for that matter. She was through with Clare Kendry.† (p. 31) Irene is appalled that someone can so easily throw away her background just for the sake of gaining privilege over another race. When Clare asks her if she had ever thought of passing, Irene replies, â€Å"No. Why should I? You see, Clare, I’ve everything I want.† (p. 28) She is happy with what she has, not even having to give up anything to get there. Or at least that’s what she convinces herself to believe. Irene is again hypocritical in her beliefs. Even when she opposes Clare’s view of passing, she is still very interested in the idea. â€Å"The truth was, she was curious. There were things she wanted to ask Clare Kendry. She wished to find out about this hazardous business of ‘passing’†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 24) She even admitted that she held for her â€Å"a fascination, strange and compelling.† (p. 28) Irene doesn’t seem to be able to decide if she accepts passing as reasonable. She forces herself to disagree with passing, allowing her to hate Clare for doing it. This shows us that sexuality and race are two matters that conflict with each other, at least in Irene’s opinion. She uses race toShow MoreRelatedPassing Off Notes2162 Words   |  9 PagesPASSING OFF – a common law Definition: Perry v Truefitt: Lord Langdale: a man is not to sell his own goods under the pretence that they are goods of another man; he cannot be permitted to practice such a deception, nor to use the means which contribute to the end. He cannot therefore to use names, marks, letters or other indicia by which may induces others to believe, the goods are manufacture by another. Erven Warninch v Townend: Lord Diplock: 5 characteristics: 1) misrepresentation Read MoreEssay on The Battle921 Words   |  4 Pages The bright autumn colors are in contrast with the deep green field. The perfect breeze is kissing the faces of all the people up on the hill. More and more spectators are gathering, like the leaves, as the minutes are passing. The birds are singing, saying good-bye to the passing day. In reality, the day, the excitement, has just begun. Excitement. There’s a single kickoff, and the beauty begins. Lines form. The battle is underway. Players are running, each in sync. A blur of back and white hurtlingRead MoreCreative Writing : My Life824 Words   |  4 Pagesfilm. Students clamoring forming into a jumbled mess as I looked over the sheet of paper in front of me, each question completed. An assigned student walked around and collected them from the class, handed them off to the teacher, and then began passing out quizzes on the film. The room fell silent as those around attempted to focus on the questions. I looked at the sheet for about five seconds before a wave of nausea overtook me, with confusion following in its path. It was not the nausea you’dRead MoreThe Death and Life of Great American Cities Analysis618 Words   |  3 Pagesas people passing by shops to ensure incomes in certain places. Jane Jacobs underlines the importance of time spread, to create balance in the district. The need of short blocks is described with the example of Manhattan, where the use of long blocks segregate walking citizens and isolate people socially as well as economically. She argues that frequent streets and short blocks are more valuable since they provide cross-use of the streets. Most shops are dependant on people passing by each dayRead MoreThe Game at the Arena Essay559 Words   |  3 Pagesnow down to a dull roar, like a spring breeze blowing around leafs. My feet and hands ache from being pounded for nearly three hours. Passing the restrooms, a filthy smell flies through the air. It’s like walking through an old abandoned building that hasn’t been cleaned in years. Finally I step outside, I smell the fresh air and my mind clears. I watch cars passing by as I walk to mine. Some brightly colored and new, others dull and rusted. It seemed that every third car that passed made a sharpRead MoreI Am Philip Roth s The Human Stain2625 Words   |  11 PagesI for thrightly admitted, to deepen his appreciation for my next book. It was a playful, amusing encounter, it lasted ten minutes at most, and was the only such encounter we ever had. We never bothered to have a serious conversation. Badinage in passing was our specialty, with the result that I never learned from Broyard who were his friends or his enemies, did not know where or when he had been born and raised, knew nothing about his economic status in childhood or as an adult, knew nothing of hisRead MorePassing. Passing Is A Transcendental Novel That Its Focus1370 Words   |  6 PagesPassing Passing is a transcendental novel that its focus is not encompassed only in a unique group of people, but embraces and approaches a cross section of diverse categories involving sexuality, gender, â€Å"race,† and class distinction. All the non-accepted characteristics by society converge in Irene and Clare Kendry who are the main characters in Passing. Irene and Clare are Black light-skinned women who show an implicit sexual tension in their comments to each other. Furthermore, they address theirRead MorePassing of Risk1126 Words   |  5 PagesIn all legal system the passing of risk in sold goods is a big problem and an important event in the sale of goods. Once the buyer acquires risk, he become liable for the price even if the goods are lost or damaged. The financial risk of and responsibility for damage or destruction when property is being transferred between a buyer and a seller. The risk includes Peril, danger, the chance of loss or injury. Liability for injury, loss , or damage, by statute placed upon the manufacturer rather thanRead More Passing Essay885 Words   |  4 PagesPassing Nella Larsens novel, Passing, provides an example of some of the best writing the Harlem Renaissance has to offer. Nella Larsen was one of the most promising young writers of her time. Though she only published two novels it is clear that she was one of the most important writers of the Harlem Renaissance movement. Her career as writer probably would have lasted longer, but she was accused of plagiarizing her short story, Sanctuary. She was eventually cleared of any wrongRead MoreEssay on The Personality of Othello1053 Words   |  5 Pages(intentively.) I did consent, And often did beguile her of her tears When I did speak of some distressful stroke That my youth suffered. My story being done, She gave me for my pains a world of (sighs.) She swore, in faith, twas strange, twas passing strange, Twas pitiful, twas wondrous pitiful. She wished she had not heard it, yet she wished That heaven had made her such a man. She thanked me, And bade me, if I had a friend that loved her, I should but teach him how to tell my story,

Obesity in Todays Society Free Essays

For good healthy long life, more energy and greater happiness, among many other benefits, the importance of regular exercise and a proper diet can’t be understated. These two factors together are the most pivotal to determining a person’s overall health, and adopting them both can make a dramatic difference in how you look and feel. Health Benefits According to the U. We will write a custom essay sample on Obesity in Todays Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now S. Department of Health and Human Services, a healthy diet means eating lots of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products and lean meats and minimizing the consumption of cholesterol, sodium, sugar and saturated fat. In conjunction with regular exercise, a healthy diet can reduce your risk of heart disease, osteoporosis, type-2 diabetes, high blood pressure and some cancers. For good health , long life, more energy and greater happiness, among many other benefits, the importance of regular exercise and a proper diet can’t be understated. These two factors together are the most pivotal to determining a person’s overall health, and adopting them both can make a dramatic difference in how you look and feel. Health Benefits According to the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, a healthy diet means eating lots of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products and lean meats and minimizing the consumption of cholesterol, sodium, sugar and saturated fat. In conjunction with regular exercise, a healthy diet can reduce your risk of heart disease, osteoporosis, type-2 diabetes, high blood pressure and some cancers. Weight If you’re overweight, eating healthfully and exercising regularly can help you lose weight safely and keep it off. And if you don’t have a weight problem, physical activity and a healthy diet can help you maintain your current weight and reduce your risk of gaining extra weight in future years. Healthy foods are generally lower in calories and higher in nutrients than other foods, and regular physical activity burns off extra calories and keeps your metabolism healthy. Energy According to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, a combination of working out and eating healthy foods can boost your energy level as well as help you feel more alert and aware, both mentally and physically. Healthy foods give your body the nutrients and vitamins it needs to function at its best, and even though you use calories and energy through physical activity, the process actually increases the total amount of energy you have. Resolved Question Show me another  » Can someone proofread my argumentative essay? Can someone proofread my argumentative essay? Feel free to make changes if needed. P. S. sorry if it seems long†¦ In the United States, many people like to go out to dine at restaurants and fast food places on daily basics. People can turn their head to the right and left and they could see someone next to them who is obese or overweight. â€Å"Approximately 22 million children under five years of age are overweight. During the past three decades, the number of overweight children in the Unites States has more than doubled. In 1983, 18. 6 percent of preschool children in the United States were defined as overweight, and 8. 5 percent were defined as obese; by 2000, 22. 0 percent of preschool children were overweight and 10. 0 percent were obese†(Decklbaum and Williams p. 39S). Childhood obesity is an â€Å"epidemic† in America as many children are either overweight or obese. The reasons for childhood obesity are lack of exercise, healthy eating and nutrition, health problems, and low self-esteem. The lack of exercise and physical activities is one reason for childhood obesity. Therefore, there are many elementary schools that do not have any physical education teachers to teach exercise. Fo r example, many elementary schools would have teachers who have no background in physical education teach students about exercising. Instead, they would tell students to go outside during class time about once a week to play kick ball or softball and that would be their exercise for the week. Another reason for not exercising is technology. Many children do not want to go outside to play with their friends, exercise or do any sport participation. They rather stay at home to chat with their friends over the Internet using Yahoo Messenger or AIM (software programs that allow people to chat with each other). They also rather stay at home and spend hours in front of a television playing video games and watching television shows like Rob and Big, CSI, and Sponge Bob. Television viewing often is considered one of the most modifiable causes of obesity in children. Children spend a substantial part of their lives in front of the television set. Recent parent-report and self-report data from a nationally representative sample of 3155 children indicate that 2- to 7-year-old children in the United States spend an average of approximately 2. 5 hours per day and 8- to 18-year-old children spend an average of about 4. 5 hours per day watching television and playing video games. When these data are combined with typical sleep data from children, it is found that children in the United States are spending more than 25% of their waking hours in front of the television set† This shows that technology is a big influence on why children do not want to exercise or do any physical activities. Many children who are obese in America do not eat healthy or have proper nutrition. Now a day, many parents are busy with work so it is easier for them to drive to McDonald’s or Burger King’s to order some fast food meals along with soft drinks for their children. Instead of cooking a meal and having their children drink water. In addition, these fast food restaurants like McDonald’s would try to convince their customer’s by asking them if they would like to â€Å"Supersize† their meals, so they can have larger portion of French fries and larger soft drink’s that would cost a few cents more. â€Å"As children’s body weights have increased, so has their consumption of fast foods and soft drinks. The proportion of foods that children consumed from restaurants and fast food outlets increased by nearly 300% between 1977 and 1996. Children’s soft drink consumption has also increased during those years, and now soft drinks provide soft drink consumers 188 kcal/d beyond the energy intake of nonconsumers†. Proper nutrition is essential and yet many children are not consuming enough fiber per day. Instead, they are consuming less than 10 grams of fiber per day and less than 25 grams per day during adulthood. â€Å"A 5-year-old child should consume at least 10 g of fiber per day and fiber intake should approach adult levels (20–25 g per day) by 15 years of age. Unfortunately, persons of all ages in the United States eat far fewer than the recommended number of servings of whole-grain products, vegetables, and fruits. In 1994 to 1996, only 3% of individuals 2 years of age consumed 3 daily servings of vegetables (with at least one third being dark green or orange vegetables), whereas only 7% consumed 6 daily servings of grains (with 3 being whole grains). Currently, dietary fiber intake throughout childhood and adolescence averages 12 g/day or 5 g/1000 kcal (4200 kJ), a level of intake that has not changed in the past 30 years. Because total carbohydrate content has increased considerably during this period, most of this increase seems to be in the form of fiber-poor refined grains, starchy vegetables, and sugar-sweetened beverages† Mood Exercise stimulates brain chemicals that help produce feelings of happiness, contentment and relaxation, so you’ll feel better if you workout on a regular basis. According to the Mayo Clinic, physical activity also makes you look better, which is a significant factor in boosting self-confidence and inspiring a satisfied life. Diversification Exercise and healthy eating can help make your life more diverse and interesting. You can seek creative ways to be physically active in your daily life and don’t have to stick with the same exercise routine all the time. The American Cancer Society suggests exercising with co-workers, going dancing with friends, playing on a sports team and spending active time with your kids and family members. Following a healthy diet can also bring up opportunities for home cooking, culinary classes, farmers’ market visits and more fun activities. How to cite Obesity in Todays Society, Essay examples